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Table of Contents
Introduction
Running is a
both a sport which can take many forms, and a
great way to get in shape.
What does
‘running’ actually mean? Running is defined in
sporting terms as a gait in which at some point
all feet are off the ground at the same time.
This is in contrast to walking, where one foot
is always in contact with the ground. The term
running can refer to any of a variety of speeds
ranging from a slow jog to all-out sprinting.
Motion
Running is
basically leaping from one leg to the other
while moving forward. Each leap raises the
center of gravity during take-off and lowers it
on landing as the knee bends to absorb the
shock. At mid arc, both feet are momentarily off
the ground. This continual rise and fall of
bodyweight expends energy opposing gravity and
absorbing shock during take-off and landing. So,
running uses more energy than walking to travel
the same distance. Therefore, running is less
efficient than walking in terms of calories
expended per unit distance, though it is faster,
and if weight loss or fitness is your goal,
running may be for you.
Lower body
motion
Running is
executed as a sequence of strides, which
alternate between the two legs. Each leg's
stride can be roughly divided into three phases:
support, drive, and recovery. Support and drive
occur when the foot is in contact with the
ground. Recovery occurs when the foot is off the
ground. Since only one foot is on the ground at
a time in running, one leg is always in
recovery, while the other goes through support
and drive. Then, briefly, as the runner leaps
through the air, both legs are in recovery.
Support phase
During the
support phase, the foot is in contact with the
ground and supports the body against gravity.
The body's centre of mass is typically somewhere
in the lower abdominal area between the hips.
The supporting foot touches ground slightly
ahead of the point that lies directly below the
body's centre of mass. The knee joint is at its
greatest extension just prior to the support
phase. When contact is made with the ground, the
knee joint begins to flex, and the extent it
flexes varies with running style. Stiff-legged
running styles reduce knee flexion, and looser,
or more dynamic, running styles increase it. As
the supporting leg bends at the knee, the pelvis
dips down on the opposite side. These motions
absorb shock and are balanced out by the
coordinated action of several muscles, including
the hip abductor, the abdominals and lower back
muscles, and the quadriceps muscle. The
supporting hip continues to extend, and the
body's centre of mass passes over the supporting
leg. The knee then begins to extend, and the
opposite hip rises from its brief dip. The
support phase begins to transition into drive.
Drive phase
The support
phase quickly transitions into the drive phase,
and this is where the speed and motion come
from. The drive leg extends at the knee joint,
and at the hips, such that the toe maintains
contact with the ground as that leg trails
behind the body. The foot pushes backward and
also down, creating a diagonal force vector,
which, in an efficient running style, is aimed
squarely at the runner's centre of mass. In some
running styles, notably long-distance "shuffles"
which keep the feet close to the ground, the
ankle remains more or less rigid during drive.
Because the knee joint straightens, though not
completely, much of the power of the drive comes
from the quadriceps muscle group, and in some
running styles, additional power comes from the
calves as they extend the foot for a longer
drive, - this motion is most exhibited in
sprinting.
Recovery
phase
When the driving
toe loses contact with the ground, the recovery
phase begins. During recovery, the hip flexes,
which rapidly drives the knee forward. Much of
the motion of the lower leg is driven by the
forces transferred from the upper leg rather
than by the action of the muscles. The degree of
leg lift can be consciously adjusted by the
runner, with additional muscle power. Recovery
ends when the foot comes into contact with the
ground, transitioning again into the support
phase.
Upper body
motion
The motions of
the upper body are essential to maintaining
balance, and a forward motion for optimal
running. They compensate for the motions of the
lower body, keeping the body in balance. A leg's
recovery is matched by a forward drive of the
opposite arm, and a leg's support and drive
motions are balanced by backward movement of the
opposite arm..
The more force
exerted by the lower body, the more exaggerated
the upper body motions have to be to absorb the
momentum. While it is possible to run without
movements of the arms, the spine and shoulders
will generally still be recruited. Using the
arms to absorb the forces aids in maintaining
balance at higher speed. Otherwise, optimal
force would be hard to attain for fear of
falling over.
Most of the
energy expended in running goes to the
compensating motions, and so considerable gains
in running speed as well as economy can be made
by eliminating wasteful or incorrect motions.
The faster the running, the more energy has to
be dissipated through compensating motions
throughout the entire body. This is why elite
sprinters have powerful upper body physiques. As
the competitive distance increases, there is a
rapid drop in the upper body and overall muscle
mass typically exhibited by the people who
compete at a high level in each respective
event. Long distance runners typically have lean
muscles.
It should also
be noted that the upper body also helps to
propel the body up hills. The faster one swings
their arms up a hill, the faster the person will
move up the hill because the legs will match the
speed at which the arms are moving.
Elements of
good running technique
Upright
posture and a slight forward lean
Leaning forward
places a runner's center of mass on the front
part of the foot, which avoids landing on the
heel and facilitates the use of the spring
mechanism of the foot. It also makes it easier
for the runner to avoid landing the foot in
front of the center of mass and the resultant
braking effect. While upright posture is
essential, a runner should maintain a relaxed
frame and use his/her core to keep posture
upright and stable. This helps prevent injury as
long as the body is neither rigid or tense. The
most common running mistakes are tilting the
chin up and scrunching shoulders.
Stride rate
and types
Exercise
physiologists have found that the stride rates
are extremely consistent across professional
runners, between 185 and 200 steps per minute.
The main difference between long- and
short-distance runners is the length of stride
rather than the rate of stride.
During running,
the speed at which the runner moves may be
calculated by multiplying the cadence (steps per
second) by the stride length. Running is often
measured in terms of pace in minutes per mile or
kilometer. Fast stride rates coincide with the
rate one pumps their arms. The faster one's arms
move, the faster the rate of stride. Different
types of stride are necessary for different
types of running. When sprinting, runners stay
on their toes bringing their legs up, using
shorter and faster strides. Long distance
runners tend to have more relaxed strides that
vary in cadence and length more, especially
depending on the terrain.
Running
injuries
Because of its
high-impact nature, many injuries are associated
with running. They include "runner's knee" (pain
in the knee), shin splints, pulled muscles
(especially the hamstring), twisted ankles,
iliotibial band syndrome, plantar fasciitis, and
Achilles tendinitis. Stress fractures are also
fairly common in runners training at a high
volume or intensity. Repetitive stress on the
same tissues without enough time for recovery or
running with improper form can lead to many of
the above. Generally these injuries can be
minimized by warming up beforehand, improving
running form, performing strength training
exercises, eating a well balanced diet, getting
enough rest, and "icing" (applying ice to sore
muscles or taking an ice bath).
Foot blisters
are also common among runners. Specialized socks
help to prevent blisters greatly. Another
common, running-related injury is chafing,
caused by repetitive rubbing of one piece of
skin against another, or against an article of
clothing. One common location for chafe to occur
is the runner's upper thighs. The skin feels
coarse and develops a rash-like look. It can be
prevented by either rubbing deodorant or special
anti-chafing creams (sold in sticks that look
like deodorant) to the area of the skin that
rubs together. Chafe is also likely to occur on
the nipple. A common solution is to affix a
piece of medical tape over each nipple before
running.
A cold bath is a
popular treatment of sub-acute injuries or
inflammation, muscular strains, and overall
muscular soreness, but which efficacy is
controversial. Some claim that for runners in
particular, ice baths offer two distinct
improvements over traditional techniques. First,
immersion allows controlled, even constriction
around all muscles, effectively closing
microscopic damage that cannot be felt and
numbing the pain that can. One may step into the
tub to relieve sore calves, quads, hams, and
connective tissues from hips to toes will gain
the same benefits, making hydrotherapy an
attractive preventive regimen.
Saint Andrew’s
cross-country coach John O’Connell, a 2:48
masters marathoner, will hit the ice baths
before the ibuprofen. "Pain relievers can
disguise injury," he warns. "Ice baths treat
both injury and soreness." The second advantage
involves a physiological reaction provoked by
the large amount of muscle submerged. Assuming
one has overcome the mind’s initial flight
response in those first torturous minutes, the
body fights back by invoking a "blood rush".
This rapid transmission circulation flushes the
damage-inflicting waste from the system, while
the cold water on the outside preserves
contraction. Like an oil change or a fluid dump,
the blood rush revitalizes the very areas that
demand fresh nutrients.
Some runners may
experience injuries when running on concrete
surfaces. The problem with running on concrete
is that the body adjusts to this flat surface
running and some of the muscles will become
weaker, along with the added impact of running
on a harder surface. Therefore it is advised to
change terrain occasionally – such as trail,
beach, or grass running. This is more unstable
ground and allows the legs to strengthen
different muscles. Runners should be wary of
twisting their ankles on such terrain. Running
downhill also increases knee stress and should
therefore be avoided. Reducing the frequency and
duration can also prevent injury; three 20–30
minute sessions a week should suffice.
A runner who
finds himself injured should not continue to run
because continuing could further damage the
injury and prolong the recovery. A common
acronym used to help the recovery process is
RICE: Rest, Ice, Compression, and Elevation.
Another injury
prevention method common in the running
community is stretching. Stretching is often
recommended as a requirement to avoid running
injuries, and it is almost uniformly performed
by competitive runners of any level. Recent
medical literature, however, finds mixed effects
of stretching prior to running. One study found
insufficient evidence to support the claim that
stretching prior to running was effective in
injury prevention or soreness reduction.
Another, however, has demonstrated that
stretching prior to running increases injuries,
while stretching afterwards actually decreases
them. The American College of Sports Medicine
recommends that all stretching be done after
exercise because this is when the muscles are
most warmed up and capable of increasing
flexibility. Recent studies have also shown that
stretching will reduce the amount of strength
the muscle can produce during that training
session.
Recently, some
runners have concluded that barefoot running
reduces running related injuries. "Some experts
now believe that most athletic shoes, with their
inflexible soles, structured sides and
super-cushioned inserts keep feet so restricted
that they may actually be making feet lazy, weak
and more prone to injury. As a result, barefoot
training is gaining more attention among
coaches, personal trainers and runners. Research
has shown that wearing shoes to exercise takes
more energy, and that barefoot runners use about
4 percent less oxygen than shoe runners. Other
studies suggest barefoot athletes naturally
compensate for the lack of cushioning and land
more softly than runners in shoes, putting less
shock and strain on the rest of the body.
Barefoot runners also tend to land in the middle
of their foot, which can improve running form
and reduce injury." However, this position on
barefoot running remains controversial and a
majority of professionals advocate the wearing
of appropriate shoes as the best method for
avoiding injury.
Additionally,
there have also been claims that improved
posture reduces injuries and helps to cope with
existing injuries. For example, one 2004 study
showed that improved running form can
significantly reduce eccentric loading of the
knee.
Although it is
not an injury, people with asthma suffer
sometimes from running, especially if they have
exercise-induced asthma. Asthma becomes more of
a problem with colder weather, increased speed,
and up hills.
Benefits of
running
While there is
the potential for injury in running (just as
there is in any sport), there are many benefits.
Some of these benefits include potential weight
loss, improved cardiovascular health, increased
muscle mass, increased bone density, and an
improved emotional state. Following a consistent
routine of running can increase HDL levels,
reducing the risks of cardiovascular disease.
Running, like all forms of regular exercise, can
effectively slow or reverse the effects of
aging.
Running can
assist people in losing weight and staying in
shape. Different speeds and distances are
appropriate for different individual health and
fitness levels. For new runners, it takes time
to get into shape. The key is consistency and a
slow increase in speed and distance. While
running, it is best to pay attention to how
one's body feels. If a runner is gasping for
breath or feels exhausted while running, it may
be beneficial to slow down or try a shorter
distance for a few weeks, or try mixing running
with short periods of walking for recovery. If a
runner feels that the pace or distance is no
longer challenging, then the runner may want to
speed up or run farther. The general rule is to
increase your distance by no more than 10% per
week. For example, if you can comfortably run 5
miles in one week over several session, the next
week your total running distance for all
sessions can be up to 5.5 miles.
Running can also
have psychological benefits, as many
participants in the sport report feeling an
elated, euphoric state, often referred to as a
"runner's high". Running is a common recommended
therapy to treat people with clinical depression
and people coping with addiction or stress.
Running as a
sport
Running is both
a competition and a type of training for sports
that have running or endurance components. As a
sport, it is split into events divided by
distance and sometimes includes permutations
such as the obstacles in steeplechase and
hurdles. Running races are contests to determine
which of the competitors is able to run a
certain distance in the shortest time. Today,
competitive running events make up the core of
the sport of athletics. Events are usually
grouped into several classes, each requiring
substantially different athletic strengths and
involving different tactics, training methods,
and types of competitors.
Running
competitions have probably existed for most of
humanity's history and were a key part of the
ancient Olympic Games as well as the modern
Olympics. Today, road racing is a popular sport
among non-professional athletes, who included
over 7.7 million people in America alone in
2002.
How fast can
people run?
Foot speed, or
sprint speed, is the maximum speed at which a
human can run. It is affected by many factors,
varies greatly throughout the population, and is
important in athletics and many sports.
The highest
human foot speed ever recorded is 48 km/h
(29.8 mph), seen during a 100 meter sprint by
Usain Bolt. Most elite competitive runners over
one to six miles will run at 8 to 10 mph;
recreational runners at 5 to 7 mph.
Types of
running events
-
Track
running: this comprises running events that
take place on an oval track, over specified
distances. These can be sprints of as short
as 60 meters (indoor tracks), all the way up
to 10 kilometer races. Relays and
steeplechases or hurdles, where runners have
to leap obstacles, are variations of track
running events.
-
Road
running: road running events are usually
generally longer than track events, and
include everything from 5 kilometers to
marathons. These events usually have
separate divisions for elite competitive
runners, and recreational and ‘fun’ runners.
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Cross
country running: most cross country races
are run in the fall and winter on grass, and
from 3 to 6 kilometers.
-
Trail
running: trail running is similar to road
running in distance and the type of
competitors, but the races are done on
tracks and trails. These are often over
challenging hilly terrain, and include
‘ultra’ trail races of 50 miles or more.
-
Fell
running: this is a type of trail running
that races up ‘fells’ or hills and
mountains. Often a single hill or mountain
is selected, and the winner is the first to
the top.
-
Relay race:
relays are races which are run by several
runners in succession, either handing off a
baton or simply crossing a ‘transition
zone’. They can be done as sprints in track
events, or in road and trail races over
longer distances.
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Recreational
running: this covers all the running done by
non-competitive runners, simply for
enjoyment and fitness. It covers running on
roads, trails, tracks, even on treadmills.
Equipment
Shoes
One of the great
aspects of running is that it doesn’t require a
large investment in equipment to get started.
One area where you shouldn’t skimp though is
your running shoes. Good shoes, correctly
fitted, will make running more comfortable, and
are your most valuable tool in preventing
injuries.
Visit a
specialist running store, with trained
professionals that can help find the right shoes
for you. Go dressed to run, as they will want
to watch you run, and may have equipment to
measure and map your personal running style, and
your ‘biomechanics’, or how your foot moves
during each running stride.
There are many
different shoes for different purposes, but to
get started, expect to spend about $100 on a
good quality pair of general running shoes. If
you can afford it, it’s a good idea to get two
pairs, and alternate them between runs. This
lets the shoes dry out and the fabrics and
materials ‘rest’ and reshape between runs. If
you run every day, two pairs are essential.
Keep a record of your running, because you will
need to replace your shoes at least every 500
miles.
Socks
Inside your
shoes, you need a good pair of socks. Your
running stride will be able to help you find the
right socks, but specialist running socks are
designed to prevent blisters, reduce heat and
sweating, and last frequent washes and hard
wear. They may cost more than regular gym
socks, but they will last longer, and they will
certainly make your running more comfortable.
Clothing
You don’t need
expensive high-tech running clothes to get
started, but a good pair of shorts, leggings, or
sweat pants that doesn’t chafe is important.
There are many ‘technical’ fabrics available
today that aren’t expensive, and will keep you
dry and chafe free. Find a style that is
comfortable and that you like.
Eventually, if
you become competitive or really want to
increase your running, compression clothing is a
good investment. These garments fit very
snugly, and help to improve circulation. This
gives you more endurance while you run, and
prevents injury. Wearing compression clothing
after running can speed up recovery too, but it
is more expensive than standard running
garments, and by its tight-fitting nature, it
isn’t always comfortable.
Gyms and
equipment
You can run just
about anywhere, so you don’t need an expensive
gym membership to get started. However, if you
really want to run a lot, if you don’t have a
lot of time, or you don’t want to run in the
dark or in bad weather, a gym can give you some
more options. Many gyms have indoor tracks, and
pretty much all have treadmills.
Running on a
treadmill is different from running on the
road. Start slowly, until you get used to the
movement, and be careful to change speed and
incline slowly. Once you get used to them,
treadmills can be very useful. They often have
cushioned surfaces to prevent injuries, and
although you can set them to run uphill, you
don’t ever run downhill, which is where many
injuries occur. If you are serious about your
running, you may even want to invest in a
treadmill at home for the long winter months!
Coaching and
clubs
You can get
started running by yourself, and there are
plenty of places to go for advice. Any
bookstore will have a section on running, and
there are several magazines devoted to running.
Any of these will offer you advice, and most
publish training plans for most levels of
runners. Use the internet too, to find
information on running, equipment, injuries, and
training.
Most towns and
cities have at least one running club. Check
with your local gym to find out of there is one
in your area. Most running clubs take runners
of all levels, and the company of other runners
is great for motivation, enjoyment and safety.
Running is great way to meet new friends, and
running clubs are a great place to start.
If you’re just
beginning, you probably don’t need a specialist
coach, but do start with a visit to your family
doctor for a checkup and to make sure you are
healthy enough to start running. If you get
more serious about your running, a coach can be
a great help. Many running clubs have coaches
to help them with programs to improve form,
speed or endurance, and they can be a valuable
source of advice and support. If you really want
to get fast or run far, a coach is a good
investment.
Running and
the weather
Unlike many
sports, running is one you can do year-round.
But staying safe and healthy through four
seasons of running requires some extra equipment
and a few precautions.
Running in
winter
In winter,
runners need to stay warm, especially for the
first ten minutes or so until the muscles have
had a chance to get warm. Choose layers that
you can easily remove as you get warm, and
replace after you run to prevent chills. Gore-tex
and other breathable fabrics will keep you warm
and dry without overheating. Running draws
muscles to the major muscle groups and the
body’s torso, so it’s important you keep your
extremities warm. A wool beanie hat and gloves
are advisable for running in cold temperatures.
Snow and ice can
make the running surface slippery, risking falls
and injury. Stay on cleared paths or trails and
grass to get traction, and avoid running in deep
snow. Snow can hide uneven terrain, roots, and
potholes that can cause you to fall.
That’s also true
for darkness; with early nightfall in winter, be
careful to run only in well lit areas. If you
run in dusk or dark conditions, wear plenty of
reflective clothing, a headlamp, or attach clip
on bicycle lights to your clothing to make sure
you can see, and be seen, by drivers, cyclists,
and other road users.
Running in
summer
In summer, heat
is your main concern. Make sure you stay well
hydrated, not just while you are running. By
drinking regularly throughout the day your body
will be better prepared form warm-weather
running. It is possible to drink too much
water, creating a very dangerous, even life
threatening condition called hyponatremia.
Prevent this and stay hydrated by replacing some
of the water you drink with specialist sports
drinks containing electrolytes and other
ingredients to prevent hyponatremia.
To help protect
you from the effects of heat, choose light
colored clothing, and protect your head from the
sun’s rays with a vented running cap. Wear
sunglasses to protect your eyes, especially if
you run on bright surfaces like concrete. Avoid
running in the hottest parts of the day, and
always wear sunscreen on any exposed areas.
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